COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT IN SRI LANKA: CURRENT ISSUES AND MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES

by(Chandana Seneviratne*)
Environmental Officer (EM&A), Central Environmental Authority, Sri Lanka
TABLE OF CONTENTS

1.0 Introduction

2.0 The Major Coastal Issues

2.1 Coastal Erosion

2.1.1 Sand Mining

2.1.2 Coral Mining

2.1.3 Construction of Maritime Structures

2.2 Loss and degradation of coastal habitats

2.3 Loss and degradation of archaeological historic and scenic sites

2.4 Coastal Pollution

3.0 Management Approach

3.1 Coastal Zone Management Plan (1990)

3.2 Coast Erosion Management Plan

4.0 Management Tools

5.0 Conclusions

6.0 References

Abbreviations:CCD - Coast Conservation DepartmentCEMP - Coastal Erosion Management PlanCZMP - Coastal Zone Management PlanSAMP - Special Area Management Plan
COASTAL ZONE MANAGEMENT IN SRI LANKA:CURRENT ISSUES AND MANAGEMENT STRATEGIESEnvironmental Officer (EM&A)Central Environmental Authority
1.0 Introduction

Sri Lanka is an island with a coastline of 1,585 kilometers and a land area of 64,000 square kilometers, situated between the latitudes of 50 55' and 90 51' North and the longitudes of 790 41' and 810 54' East within the tropic of Cancer. The coastal areas are generally low-lying, and landscapes exhibit considerable variety characterized by bays, lagoons, headlands, coastal marshes and dunes. The areal extent of biologically productive mangroves systems, estuaries, coral reefs and sea grasses is decreasing due to natural and man made causes.
The development of the country has been closely related to maritime activities. Coastal regions (Defined as the AGA division with a Maritime boundary) encompasses 22% of the total extent; 32% of the country's population. 65% of the urbanized areas, 41% of the urban places, 4 out of 6 cities (population 100,000 & over) 17 out of 34 intermediate size (20000-99,999), 50% of the small size (below 20,000) towns, over 80% of tourist hotel rooms and two third of the of all industrial production of Sri Lanka. As a result the development of physical, economic and social infrastructure as well as the resource use in the coastal zone has been rapidly increased causing savior environmental degradation especially during the last 25 years.
Coastal uses including urban expansion, commercial and fisheries harbour development, river training and out fall schemes, transport and communications, recreational and tourism development, sand and coral mining have all had tremendous impact on the coastal environment. These stresses have been further aggravated by the ever present threat of coastal erosion especially occurred in the south and south western part of the country. With population growth the pressure on the resource base of the coastal zone had also proportionately increased creating new stresses on the coastal environment. Today, plans for sustainable utilization of the island's coastal resources, whether for further settlement, agricultural development, fisheries and aquaculture promotion, tourism or other purposes, underline the need for a deeper awareness and appreciation of the character of this resource base, its potentialities, problems and evolutionary tendencies.
Interest in the management of coastal problems in Sri Lanka dates from the 1920's. Efforts in this field were primarily directed towards seeking engineering solutions to curb immediate coastal erosion problems by construction of protective structures. However, the lack of understanding of the dynamic nature and complex interrelationship among ecosystems and human activities in the coastal zone resulted in an escalation of coastal problems. The realization that a comprehensive approach to coastal resource management was required led to the establishment of a coast Protection Unit in 1963. In 1978 Coast Conservation Division was established in the Ministry of Fisheries and up graded to a department in 1984. In 1981 Parliament enacted Coast Conservation Act No. 57 of 1981 and came into operation in 1983. The Act has assigned the coast Conservation Department three primary responsibilities within the designated coastal zone (Figure 1);
a) Policy formulation, planning and research;b) Administration of permit procedures regulating coastal development activitiesc) Construction and maintenance of shoreline protection works.
2.0 The Major Coastal Issues

The unsustainable manner of resource utilization, lack of planning and management initiatives created serious environmental problems in the coastal zone. These issues are discussed in the subsequent section, can be summarized as follows:
1. Coastal Erosion

2. Loss and degradation of coastal habitats such as coral reefs, mangroves, sand dunes, lagoons and marshes

3. Loss and degradation archaeological, cultural and scenic resources

4. Coastal Pollution

Coastal erosion is a process of change that occurs at the land sea interface and sever problem in Sri Lanka that results in damage to or loss of houses, hotels and other coastal structures, undermines roads, contributes to the loss of land and disrupts fishing, navigation, recreation and other activities. The impact of coastal erosion is most severe along Sri Lanka's western and south western coasts. It has been estimated that 685 kilometers of coast line in the south, south west and the west coast, about 175,000 - 285,000 square meters of coastal land are lost each year. The principal causes of erosion includes:
- Natural process due to monsoon generated wave attacks- Man-induced changes occur due to extraction of sand and corals from the coastal zone and improperly cited buildings and maritime structures.While coastal erosion is caused by natural process, human activities such as mining of beach and river sand, mining of corals and Construction of ill - planned maritime structures are major factors contributing significantly to coastal erosion.
The "Coastal Zone" is defined in the Coast Conservation act as ....
"That area lying within a limit of three hundred meters landward of the Mean High Water Line and a limit of two kilometers seaward of the Mean Low Water Line and in the case of rivers, streams, lagoons, or any other body of water connected to the sea either permanently or periodically, the landward boundary shall extent to a limit of two kilometers measures perpendicular to the straight base line drawn between the natural entrance points there of and shall include waters of such rivers, streams and lagoons or any other body of water to the sea."

The major source of material supply for the nourishment of beaches in Sri Lanka is from the network of rivers flowing to the sea. River sand is a prim material used in the building industry while beach sand is used for filling purposes. These resources have been traditionally considered as "free" resources and being utilized with no value added for the material itself. In the recent past the rapid growth of the housing and building industry led to increased amount of sand being removed from the rivers and beaches thus effecting the coastal stability and creating environmental problems. Phase one of the National Sand Study (1992) revealed that more than 3.1 million cubic meters of sand were mined annually from beaches, lower and upper part of the major rivers located from Puttalam to Dondra Head.
It has been calculated that the damage, in the form of land loss and/or protection comes to Rs. 25 to 30 million per annum or Rs. 9.00 per m3 of sand mined as a result of rapid level of sand mining in the coastal region, major impacts could as follows;
a) coastal erosionb) Salt water intrusion into the upstream areas and intakesc) Increase flooding originating from the sead) Water quality problemse) River bank erosion
2.1.2 Coral Mining

Mining of coral to obtain Calcium Oxide for building and for other industrial and agricultural purposes. Until recent times it was done on a limited scale and was continued in areas where dead coral deposits in coastal wetlands were found. Within the past three decades, the use of lime has increased tremendously as a rapid growth rate of building industry. A study conducted in 1984 revealed that a quantity in excess 18,000 tons of coral is extracted in the coastal reach between Ambalandoga and Dickwella. due to the controlling measures taken by the Coast Conservation Department this amount has been reduced by 48% in 1994. Coral mining activity on the south and south west coast have resulted in coastal erosion due to changes caused int he existing bottom conditions.
2.1.3 Construction of maritime structures

Construction of maritime structures such as sea walls, break waters, revetments and jetties has long been undertaken on an adhoc basis to deal with the problem of a particular beach stretch. The Master Plan for Coastal Erosion (1989) revealed that more than 49,000 meters of revetment and 6,360 meters of grayness have been constructed. Most of these structures were poorly designed and in some cases led to an increase of coastal erosion. Poorly designed fishery harbours have not only created coast erosion problems but also induced wave refraction and entry of sand bearing currents into the harbours causing siltation.
2.2 Loss and degradation of coastal habitats

The important coastal habitats of Sri Lanka are small and vulnerable to degradation. The areal extent of biologically productive mangrove systems, estuaries, coral reefs, and sea grasses is decreasing. In 1986, it was estimated that 12,000 ha of Mangroves, 23,00 ha of salt marshes, 7,000 ha of Sand dunes, 158,000 ha of lagoons located in the coastal region. These habitats are being depleted in the recent past due to over exploitation. According to the current information, current rate of depletion will reduce mangrove habitat by up to 50%. Coral reefs are still being mined for several near shore areas in the south. Destructive fishing methods are also diminishing coral reefs and sea grass.
2.3 Loss and degradation of archaeological historic and scenic sites

Sri Lanka's coastal zone contains many and diverse sites of archaeological, historical and scenic significance. These sites provide valuable evidence of the pattern and the progress of Sri Lanka culture and represent part of Sri Lanka's common heritage. The inventory of places of religious and cultural significance and areas of scenic and recreational value within the coastal zone have been identified 91 site as high priority for conservation. Today, many of these important sites are threatened with inappropriate development. In some locations, important scenic areas are being degraded and public access to the beach obstructed.
2.4 Coastal Pollution

Coastal pollution is a direct result of population pressures and misuse of land and water resources. The major sources of coastal water pollution along the south west and south coasts are domestic sewage, industrial waste, solid waste and agricultural chemicals. Growing urban population densities coupled with inadequate housing and lack of water and sewage disposal facilities, has led to faecal contamination of surface and ground water. As a result of contamination of ground water and surface water in the coastal zone major public health problems such as typhoid, hepatitis can be found. About two third of Sri Lanka's industrial plants are located in coastal regions, primarily in the Greater Colombo metropolitan region. The main industries contributing to water pollution are textile, paper , tanning, distilleries, paints and chemical production. A study conducted for the Central Environmental Authority (1994) identified 336 industrial facilities in coastal areas as "medium" or "high" pollution potential. While not associated with industrial processing activities, waste oil is of increasing importance as a source of water pollution. Oil pollution results from washing oil tanker holds, the discharge of oil in bilge water and other discharges form mechanized boats. Solid waste including garbage, refuse and other discarded materials resulting from household activities. Collecting and effectively disposing of solid waste in the coastal regions is an increasing problem. The heavy use of chemicals for agricultural fertilizers, pesticides and herbicides degrades the soil and contributes to the pollution of water in marshes, lagoons and near shore coastal water.
3.0 Management Approach

The coastal zone planning and management initiatives taken place in the recent past did not cover every coastal problem but focused upon a few well defined issues at a time and to build the program incremental as experience is gained. The policies and the procedures are being successfully implemented, and they have brought credibility and attracted funding for the effort. The first three major coastal issues mentioned above have been tackled during the first generation coastal zone management effort while coastal pollution problem being focused in the second generation effort. Thus to manage the first three major coastal issues two strategies have been adopted by the Coast Conservation Department;
1. Preparation of a National Coastal Zone Management Plan

2. Preparation of a Master Plan for Coastal Erosion

3.1 Coastal Zone Management Plan (1990)
The Coast Conservation Act also mandated the preparation and implementation of a Coastal Zone Management Plan. Thus the plan was prepared with technical assistance of the University of Rhode Island, USAID and is being implemented since 1990. The Coastal Zone Management Plan (CZMP) 1990 can not conceived as a panacea for all the problems and issues resulting from neglect and past mis-management. The plan address only certain critical coastal issues with initial emphasis on problems causing significant economic and social losses which are more amenable to accepted management practices. In particular the plan has attempted to address problems related to coastal erosion, coastal habitats and the loss and degradation of historical and cultural sites and scenic and recreational areas.
It has also dealt with the regulatory system including the legal, administrative and fiscal functions of the Coast Conservation Department (CCD), while paying some attention to research and education. It has been considered that the plan is an incremental one and coastal zone management planning is a continuing effort. Thus the CZMP 1990 should be considered as a first generation plan and the policies and management strategies outlined therein will have to be tested and their successes and failures evaluated over time.
Implementing actions in the coastal Zone Management Plan are of several types: regulations, direct development, research, coordination, education and awareness, plan and policy development.
According to the Coast Conservation Act it is mandatory to review the CZMP in every four years time. Thus the first generation CZMP is under revision now, and the past experience reveal the necessity of inclusion of two new chapters, namely; on Pollution and Special Area Management.
3.2 Coast Erosion Management Plan

The Coastal Erosion Management Plan is an integral part of the CZMP and it was prepared in 1986 with assistance given by Danish International Development Agency (DANIDA). It defines the problem of coastal erosion in Sri Lanka within the constraints of available information at that time, and sets out the best possible technical approach towards mitigation and capital investment needed for such action. The CEMP has categorized the coastal erosion problem under "key areas" and "singular cases". The key areas refers to a coastal stretch of several kilometers in length subject to erosion problem which predicts the need for complex solution in view of its morphological complexity. The Singular cases are those isolated problem cases covering limited stretches which would not interfere with the coastal processes to an extent that would require extensive studies prior to mitigatory actions. The Plan indicated project concepts for structural solutions in erosion areas and also identified investigation needs where there is insufficient data available.
Once the Master Plan for Coastal Erosion Management was completed, DANIDA provided further assistance for two stages of coastal protection structures and beach nourishment. Stage 1 (1987 -1989), for the Negombo and Moratuwa coast protection schemes, cost an estimated Rs. 320 million ($US 6,660,000); and State ii (1990 - 1992) for protection of the main road from Beruwela to Weligama, cost approximately Rs. 500 million ($ US 10,400,000). In 1994 the Coastal Erosion Master Plan was updated and presently further donor assistance are being seeking for its implementation.
4.0 Management Tools

The existing management tools which are using to minimize major coastal issues could be categories as follows;
1. Regulations2. Director Development3. Research4. Education and Awareness5. Plan and policy development
The regulatory program as administered by the coast conservation Department is essentially reactive. The program responds to proposals made by other governmental agencies and private developers for construction and alteration of the coastline. The CCD is attempts to minimize the environmental and social impacts of development projects through its permit procedures, set-back standards, prohibitions and in some cases subjects the development proposals to the Environmental Impact Assessment requirements. It also ensures that environmentally and structurally appropriate sitting decisions are made.
A second major type of management tool is being used in the process of coastal zone management is direct development activities undertaken by government. With regard to coastal erosion management the major type of direct development is the construction of shore protection works.
A third type of management tool is to identify areas of research and conduct research. Research is necessary because often good management is precluded due to some coastal problems being inadequately understood. During the recent past CCD initiated research on problems related to implementation of the CZM Plan. The CCD has sponsored research on the social and economic aspects of coral mining and sand mining, on how to improve permitting procedures, and how to better educate and involve coastal communities in coastal zone management.
The need for environmental awareness and education in support of Sri Lanka's Coastal Zone Management Program was clearly recognized in the Coastal Zone Management Plan. The successful implementation is depend on both understanding and support of the people of Sri Lanka. Thus the coast conservation Department has implemented vigorous public awareness and education program since 1992 to date. The German Technical Assistance Agency (GTZ) has also been provided assistance for strengthening the coastal Zone Management Program including the aspects of environmental education and awareness.
Under plan and policy development, CCD is enable to focused on Special Are Management as a subsequent planning effort to CZMP. special Are Management (SAM) planning has emerged as a successful method of managing development in complex coastal settings. It is being tested in two coastal sites in Sri Lanka as an auxiliary coastal zone management tool. Based on the outcome of the present experience of SAM process, additional twenty one sites have been identified by the coast Conservation Department for future implementation.
5.0 Conclusions
The experience gain in coastal management in the recent past has shown that the scope of the endeavor must be broadened. It indicates that a collaborative effort on the part of several governmental agencies, non governmental organizations, and local communities is required and that the geographic area and issues addressed must be expanded. Thus, the future planning and management efforts in Sri Lanka must be focused more on Special Area Management to achieve the desired goals and objectives of sustainable coastal resource management.
With the establishment of the Coast Conservation Division in the Ministry of Fisheries in January 1978 marked an important mile stone in Sri Lanka's efforts at managing its coastal resources. The Coast Conservation Division was upgraded to the status of a Government Department under the said ministry in January 1984 in recognition of the magnitude of the task it is mandated to perform by the legislation. During the last seventeen years, first generation coastal zone management efforts had been successfully undertaken by the Coast conservation Department. As a result of comprehensive donor assistance programs and the contribution made by the Sri Lankan government, today its Coastal Zone Management Program could be identified as a successful model among the developing countries.
6.0 References

1. Government of Sri Lanka. 1981, Coast Conservation Act No. 57

2. Savundranayagam, T.et al. 1993, The Economic Significance of the coastal Region of Sri Lanka.

3. White, A. (Ed) 1993, Are Coastal Zone Management And Economic Development Complementary in Sri Lanka.

Yaga Bamunu Mohottallage Chandana Jayantha Senavirathne

Central Environmental Authority104-Robert Gunawardene Mawatha

Battaramulla, Sri Lanka

Email: senarathe@yahoo.com; cenaut@slt.ik